Largest prehistoric organisms

The largest prehistoric organisms include both vertebrate and invertebrate species. Many are described below, along with their typical range of size (for the general dates of extinction, see the link to each). Many species mentioned might not actually be the largest representative of their clade due to the incompleteness of the fossil record and many of the sizes given are merely estimates since no complete specimen have been found. Especially their body mass is mostly conjecture because soft tissue was rarely fossilized. Generally the size of extinct species was subject to energetic[1] and biomechanical constraints.[2]

Contents

Vertebrates

Mammals (Mammalia)

Basilosaurus was once recognized as one of the largest known extinct cetaceans at 18 metres (59 ft) in length.[3]

The largest fossil Odontocete ("toothed whale") was the Miocene physeteroid whale Livyatan melvillei which was estimated to be between 13.5 and 17.5 meters in length.[4][5] One notable feature of L. melvillei was its teeth which could exceed 36 cm in length and were unmatched by any other animal, extinct or alive.[6]

However, the largest fossil whales were baleen whales from the Pliocene and Pleistocene Epochs.[7] A notable example is the bones of a Pliocene age baleen whale, assigned the questionable name "Balaenoptera sibbaldina", which likely rivaled the modern blue whale in size.[7]

The largest monotreme (egg-laying mammal) ever was the extinct long-beaked echidna species known as Zaglossus hacketti, known from a couple of bones found in Western Australia. It was the size of a sheep, weighing probably up to 100 kg (220 lb).

The largest artiodactyl was Hippopotamus gorgops with a length of 4.3 metres (14 ft) and a height of 2.1 metres (6.9 ft). Bison latifrons reached a shoulder height of 2.5 meters (8.5 feet), and had horns that spanned over 2 meters (6.5 feet). The largest camel that ever lived was the Syrian Camel. It was 3 meters (10 ft) at the shoulder and 13 feet tall. Daeodon was the largest entelodont that ever lived, at 12 ft long and 7 ft at the shoulder.

The largest extinct marsupial was Diprotodon, about 3 m long (10 ft), standing two meters (6 ft) tall and weighing up to 2,786 kg (6,142 pounds).[8] The two largest carnivorous marsupials were the Marsupial Lion and Thylacosmilus (larger than the Tasmanian Tiger), both about 6 ft long (1.8 m) and weighing 100–160 kilograms (220–350 lb). The largest kangaroo ever was Procoptodon, which could grow to 3.0 m (10 ft) and weigh 230 kilograms (510 lb).[9]

The largest terrestrial carnivoran and the largest bear as well as the largest mammalian land-predator of all time was Arctotherium angustidens of the genus Arctotherium or the South American short-faced bears. A humerus of A. angustidens from Buenos Aires indicate that the big males of this species would have weighted 1,588- 1,749 kg and standing at least 11 feet (3.4 meter) tall on the hind-limbs.[10]

The heaviest felid ever was the saber-toothed cat Smilodon populator, weighing on average between 360– 470 kg while the American Lion (Panthera leo atrox) was the longest ever, with a total length of 4 m (13 ft 1 in) and standing 1.5 metres (5 ft) at the shoulder.[11] The largest canid of all time was Epicyon haydeni, which stood 37 inches tall (0.9 meters) at the shoulder. The largest bear-dog was Amphicyon Ingens, with a head-body length of 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) and weighting up to 600 kg.[12]

The largest cingulate known is Doedicurus, at 4.5 meters long. (14 ft). Glyptodon easily topped 2.7 m (9 ft) and 2 tonnes (4,400 lb).

The largest creature of this group was Deinogalerix,[13] measuring up to 60 cm in total length, with a skull up to 20 cm long. It occupied the same ecological niche as dogs and cats today.

The largest prehistoric lagomorph is Minorcan Giant Lagomorph (Nuralagus rex) at 23 kg (50 lbs).

The largest cimolestid is Coryphodon, 1 metre (3.3 ft) high at the shoulder and 2.25 metres (7.4 ft) long.

The largest perissodactyl, and land mammal, of all time was Indricotherium. It stood 5.5 m (18 ft) tall at the shoulder, a total height of 8 m (27 ft), totally 12 m (40 ft) long and may have weighed 20 tonnes (22 tons), though mass estimates vary widely. Some prehistoric horned rhinos also grew to large sizes. The giant woolly rhino Elasmotherium reached 20 ft long and 6.6 ft high.

The largest pilosan ever was Megatherium, a ground sloth with an estimated average weight of 4.5 tonnes (5 tons) and a height of 5.1 m (17 ft), which is about the same size as the African Bush Elephant. Several other sloths grew to large sizes as well, such as Eremotherium, but none as large as Megatherium.

The largest primate of all time was Gigantopithecus blackii, standing 3 m tall (10 ft) and weighing 540 kilograms (1,200 lb).[14][15] Some prehistoric prosimians grew to huge sizes as well. Archaeoindris was a 1.5 meter long lemur that lived in Madagascar and weighed 200 kg, more than a silverback gorilla. Megaladapis is another large extinct lemur at 1.3 to 1.5 m (4 to 5 ft) in length.

The largest non-indricotherine land mammal ever was a proboscid, probably the Songhua River Mammoth (Mammuthus sungari) at 9.1 metres (30 ft) long, 5.3 metres (17 ft) tall, and with an estimated weight of 17 tonnes (19 short tons). Some other enormous proboscids include the steppe mammoth, (Mammuthus trogontherii), the Imperial Mammoth (Mammuthus imperator), and Deinotherium.

Josephoartigasia monesi was the largest rodent of all time, approximately 3 metres (10 ft) long and 1.5 metres (5 ft) tall and weighing an estimated 1 tonne.[16] Before the discovery of Josephoartigasia monesi, another giant rodent was known, Phoberomys insolita, but it was known from only a few fragments, so its real size is unknown. A slightly smaller relative, Phoberomys pattersoni, was found, which was 3 m long (10 ft) and weighed 320 kilograms (700 lb).

The largest prehistoric sirenian was Steller's sea cow at 8 m long (27 ft). Another contender was Rytiodus which was 6 m long (20 ft). It was about twice the size as modern sirenians.

The largest arsinoithere was Arsinoitherium. When alive, it would have been 1.8 metres tall (5.9 ft) at the shoulders, and 3 m long (10 ft).

The largest dinoceratan was Uintatherium. It was about the size of a rhinoceros. Despite its large size, it had a brain only about as large as an orange.

The largest desmostylian was Desmostylus at 1.8 metres long (6 ft) and weighing about 200 kilograms (440 lb).

The largest litoptern was Macrauchenia, which had three hoofs per foot. It was a relatively large animal, with a body length of around 3 m (10 ft).[17]

The largest notoungulate was Toxodon. It was about 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) in body length, and about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) high at the shoulder and resembled a heavy rhinoceros.

The largest creodont and oxyaenid was Sarkastodon weighting at 800 kg. The largest hyaenodontid was Megistotherium at 500 kg.[18]

The largest mesonychid was Andrewsarchus mongoliensis. It is known only from one skull which was 83 cm (36.7 in.) long and 56 cm (22 in.) wide.[19]

Mammal-like reptiles (Synapsida)

The plant-eating pelycosaur Cotylorhynchus probably was the largest of all synapsids, at 20 feet (6 meters) and 2 tons. Among the largest carnivorous synapsids were the therapsids Anteosaurus, which was 5–6 meters long, and weighed 500–600 kg, and Ivantosaurus, with a length of 20 feet (6 meters).

Moschops was the largest therapsid, with a weight of 700–1000 kg, and a length of about 5 meters.

Reptiles (Reptilia)

The largest known crocodilian is likely Sarcosuchus imperator at 12 metres (39 ft) long and weighing 8 tonnes.[20] Some close contenders in size are Deinosuchus estimated at around 12 metres (39 ft),[21] and Purussaurus estimated at 11–13 metres (36–43 ft) in length.[22] Another large crocodilian is Rhamphosuchus, estimated at 10 metres (33 ft) in length.[23]

Giant mosasaurs are the largest animals within this group. The largest known mosasaur is likely Mosasaurus hoffmanni, estimated at 17.6 metres (58 ft) in length.[24] A close contender in size is Hainosaurus bernardi, estimated at 15 metres (49 ft) in length.[25] Another giant mosasaur is Tylosaurus, estimated at 10–14 metres (33–46 ft) in length.[26][27]

The largest known prehistoric snake is Titanoboa cerrejonensis, estimated at 13–15 metres (43–49 ft) in length and 1135 kg - 1819 kg in weight.[28] Another known very large fossil snake is Gigantophis garstini, estimated at around 11 metres (36 ft) in length.[29] However, a close rival in size to Gigantophis is a fossil snake, Palaeophis colossaeus, which may have been around 9 metres (30 ft) in length.[28][30]

The largest known land lizard is probably Megalania at 5.5 metres (18 ft) in length.[31][32] However, maximum size of this animal is subject to hot debate.

The largest plesiosaur was Mauisaurus haasti, growing to about 20 metres (66 ft) in length. Next behind was Elasmosaurus at 14 metres (46 ft) long.

There is much controversy over the largest of these reptiles. Fossil remains of a pliosaur nicknamed as Predator X have been discovered and excavated from Norway in 2008. This pliosaur has been estimated at 15 metres (49 ft) in length and 41 metric tons (45 short tons) in weight.[33] However, in 2002, a team of paleontologists in Mexico discovered the remains of a pliosaur nicknamed as Monster of Aramberri, which is also estimated at 15 metres (49 ft) in length.[34] This specimen is however claimed to be a juvenile and has been attacked by a larger pliosaur.[35] Some media sources claimed that Monster of Aramberri was a Liopleurodon but its species is unconfirmed thus far.[34] Another very large pliosaur was Pliosaurus macromerus, known from a single 2.8 m long incomplete mandible. It may have reached 18 metres (59 ft), assuming the skull was about 17% of the total body length.[36]

The largest ichthyosaur was Shastasaurus sikanniensis at 21 metres (69 ft) in length.[37]

The largest turtle ever was Archelon ischyros at 16 ft long and 4,500 lbs. The next largest was Protostega at 3 m (10 ft).[38] Two tortoises share the title of largest ever tortoise: Meiolania at 8 ft. long and well over a ton, and Colossochelys atlas at 8 to 9 ft. and weighing over half a ton.

The largest is Scutosaurus, up to 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) in length, with bony armor, and a number of spikes decorating its skull.

The largest of this order is Redondasaurus, who attained a length of 10–12 metres (32–40 ft)

The largest pterosaur was Quetzalcoatlus northropi, at 127 kg (280 lbs) and with a wingspan of 12 m (40 ft). Another close contender is Hatzegopteryx, also with a wingspan of 12 m (this estimate is based on a skull 3 m long (10 ft).[39] Yet another possible contender for the title is Ornithocheirus, which allegedly had a 12-meter (40-foot) wingspan. However specimen of this size have not been formally described in the literature.

Non-avian dinosaurs (Dinosauria)

Main article: Dinosaur size

A mega-sauropod, Amphicoelias fragillimus, is a contender for the largest dinosaur in history. It has been estimated at 58 metres (190 ft) in length and 122,400 kilograms (270,000 lb) in weight.[40] Unfortunately, the fossil remains of this dinosaur have been lost.[40] This lefts sauropods like Argentinosaurus, Futalognkosaurus and Puertasaurus as the most possible contenders for the largest sauropod with estimated lengths of 30–35 metres (98–115 ft) and weights of 60–100 metric tons (66–110 short tons). Other giant sauropods like Supersaurus, Sauroposeidon, and Diplodocus probably rivaled them in length but not overall size.[40]

The very largest ornithopods, like Shantungosaurus were as heavy as medium sized sauropods at up to 23 metric tons (25 short tons)[41][42] but never grew far beyond 15 meters (50 feet). The largest is probably Shantungosaurus at 16.5 metres (54 ft) in length.[41] However, "Lambeosaurus" laticaudus appears to be close contender at around 15–16.4 metres (49–53.8 ft) in length.[42]

The largest theropod as well as the largest terrestrial predator yet known is Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, with the largest specimen known estimated at 16–18 metres (52–59 ft) in length and around 7–9 metric tons (8–10 short tons) in weight.[43] Other large therapods were Giganotosaurus carolinii, and Tyrannosaurus rex, whose largest specimens known estimated at 13.2 metres (43 ft)[44] and 12.8 metres (42 ft)[45] in length respectively. Some other notable giant theropods (e.g. Carcharodontosaurus, Acrocanthosaurus, and Mapusaurus) may also have rivaled them in size.

The largest thyreophoran was Ankylosaurus at 9 metres (30 ft) in length and 6.5 tons in weight.[46] Stegosaurus was also 9 meters (30 ft) long but around 5 tons in weight.

The largest ceratopsian known is Triceratops horridus, along with the closely related Eotriceratops xerinsularis both with estimated lengths of 9 metres (30 ft).[47]

Birds (Aves)

The largest birds of all time might have been the elephant birds of Madagascar. Of almost the same size was the Australian Dromornis stirtoni. Both were about 3 m tall (10 ft). The elephant birds were up to 400 kg and Dromornis stirtoni was up to 500 kg in weight. The tallest bird ever was the Giant Moa (Dinornis maximus) at 12 ft tall.

The largest flight-capable bird was Argentavis magnificens which a wingspan of 8.3 m (28 ft), and a body weight of 110 kg (244 lb).

The largest waterfowl of all time belonged to the Dromornithidae (e.g. Dromornis stirtoni).[48]

The largest shorebird of all time was the Great Auk (Pinguinus impennis) at 5 kg (11 lb) in weight and 75–85 cm (30–34 in) in length.

The largest of Ciconiiformes was Leptoptilos robustus, standing 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) tall and weighing an estimated 16 kilograms (35 lb).[49][50]

The largest falconiform and the largest flying bird presently known was Argentavis magnificens. The immense bird had wingspan estimated up to 8.3 m (28 ft) and a weight up to 110 kg (244 lb). It was as high as an adult human when standing.

The largest pigeon ever was the Dodo (Raphus cucullatus), weighing 23 kg (50 lb) and standing 1 m (3.3 ft) tall.

The largest of the hesperornithines was Canadaga arctica at 5 ft long.

The largest diatryma was Gastornis 1.75 metres (5.7 ft) tall, with large individuals up to 2 m (6.6 ft) tall.

The largest teratorn and the largest flying bird ever was Argentavis, with a weight of 80 kilograms (180 lb).

The largest ever gruiform and largest phorusrhacid or "terror bird" (highly predatory, flightless birds of South America) was Brontornis, which was about 175cm tall at the shoulder, could raise its head 2,8 metres above the ground an could have weighed as uch as 400kg.[51] The immense phorushacid Kelenken with a skull 28 inches (71 cm) long (18 inches of which was beak), had the largest head of any known bird.

The largest bird of prey ever was the enormous Haast's eagle (Harpagornis moorei), with a wingspan of 2.6 to 3 m (8 to 10 ft), relatively short for their size. Total length was probably up to 1.4 m (4.7 ft) in female and they weighed about 10 to 15 kg (22 to 33 Ib).

The largest in this group was a giant flightless Sylviornis, a bird 1.70 m (5.6 ft) long and weighing up to about 30 kg (66 lb).

The largest songbird is the extinct Giant Grosbeak (Chloridops regiskongi) at 11 inches (28 cm) long.

The largest in this group – which has been variously allied with Procellariiformes, Pelecaniformes and Anseriformes – and the largest flying birds of all time other than Argentavis were the huge Cyphornis, Dasornis, Gigantornis and Osteodontornis. They had a wingspan of 5.5–6 m (18–20 ft) and stood about 1.2 meters (4.5 ft) tall. Exact size estimates and judging which one was largest are not yet possible for these birds, as their bones were extremely thin-walled, light and fragile, and thus most are only known from very incomplete remains.

The largest woodpecker is the possibly extinct Imperial Woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis) with a total length of about 22 inches (50 centimeters). The largest woodpecker confirmed to be extant is the Great Slaty Woodpecker (Mulleripicus pulverulentus).

The largest parrot is the extinct Norfolk Island Kaka (Nestor productus), about 38 cm long.

The largest penguin of all time was Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi of New Zealand and Antarctica. It stood 1.7 meters (5 ft 6.9 in) in height and was 90 kilograms (198 lb) in weight. Similar in size were the New Zealand Giant Penguin (Pachydyptes pondeorsus) with a height of 1.4 to 1.6 m (about 5 ft) and weighing around 80 to possibly over 100 kg, and Icadyptes salasi at 1.5 m (5 ft) tall.

The largest owl of all time was the Cuban Ornimegalonyx at 43.3 inches tall probably exceeding 9 kg (20 lb).[52]

Amphibians (Amphibia)

The largest amphibian of all time was the 30 ft long temnospondyli Prionosuchus. Another huge temnospondyli was Koolasuchus at 16 ft long, but only 1 ft high.

The largest frog ever was the 16-inch-long (41 cm) Beelzebufo ampinga, weighing 10 pounds (4.5 kg)

The largest diacectid, Diadectes, was a heavily built animal, 1.5 to 3 meters long, with thick vertebrae and ribs.

The largest anthracosaur was Anthracosaurus, a predator. It could reach up to 12 feet in length. Eogyrinus commonly reached 4.6 metres (15 ft), however, it was more lightly built.[53]

Bony fish (Osteichthyes)

The largest placoderm was the 8.5 metres (28 ft) long Dunkleosteus.

The largest of these was the 5 metres (16 ft) long Hyneria.

The largest bony fish of all time was the pachycormid, Leedsichthys problematicus, at around 16 metres (52 ft) long.[54] Claims of larger individuals persist.

The largest of ichthyodectid fish was the 5.0 metres (16.4 ft) long Xiphactinus .

Cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes)

An extinct megatoothed shark, C. megalodon is by far the biggest shark known.[55] This giant shark reached a total length (TL) of more than 16 metres (52 ft).[56][57] C. megalodon may have approached a maxima of 20.3 metres (67 ft) in total length and 103 metric tons (114 short tons) in mass.[58]

The largest symmoriid is Stethacanthus at 2 metres (6.6 ft) long.

The largest eugenedont is Helicoprion at 10 metres (33 ft) long.

Arthropods

Dinocaridida

The largest known is Anomalocaris at 1 meter long.

Chelicerata

The largest in this group was Jaekelopterus rhenaniae at 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) in length. A close contender was Pterygotus at 2.3 metres (7.5 ft) in length.

There are two contenders for largest ever arachnid: Pulmonoscorpius kirktonensis and Brontoscorpio anglicus. Both were 1 metre (3.3 ft). The biggest difference is that Brontoscorpio was aquatic, and Pulmonoscorpius was terrestrial. Brontoscorpio is not to be confused with various Eurypterids: it was a true scorpion with a stinger.

Myriapoda

The largest centipede of all time was Euphoberia at 1 metre (3.3 ft). It was about four times as long as the largest living species, Scolopendra gigantea.

The largest by far was the giant Arthropleura. Measuring 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) and 45 centimetres (18 in) wide, it was the largest terrestrial arthropod of all time.

Trilobitomorpha

Some of these extinct marine arthropods exceeded 60 centimetres (24 in) in length. A nearly complete specimen of Isotelus rex from Manitoba attained a length over 70 centimetres (28 in), and a Ogyginus forteyi from Portugal was almost as long. Fragments of trilobites suggest even larger record sizes. An isolated pygidium of Hungioides bohemicus implies that the full animal was 90 centimetres (35 in) long.[59]

Insects (Insecta)

The largest of this group was the giant ant Titanomyrma giganteum at 3 centimetres (1.2 in), with queens growing to 6 centimetres (2.4 in). It had a wingspan of 15 centimetres (5.9 in).[60]

The largest in this group was probably Meganeura with a wingspan of 75 centimetres (2.46 ft).[61] Another enormous and possibly larger species was Meganeuropsis permiana.

The largest in this group was probably Saurophthirus, growing to 1 inch (2.5 cm) in length. It possibly sucked the blood of pterosaurs.

The largest of this order was Mazothairos, with a wingspan of up to 22 inches (56 cm).

Several cockroach-like stem dictyopterans from the Carboniferous Period grew to exceptional size. A specimen of Xenoblatta from Ohio was at least 70 mm long, almost the size of the largest cockroach living today.[62][63]

Molluscs (Mollusca)

Gastropods (Gastropoda)

The largest of this group were in the genus Campanile, with the extinct Campanile giganteum having shell lengths up to 60 centimetres (24 in).

Bivalves (Bivalvia)

The largest bivalve ever was Platyceramus platinus, a giant that usually had an axial length of 1 metre (3.3 ft), but some individuals could reach an axial length of up to 3 metres (9.8 ft).

Cephalopods (Cephalopoda)

Main article: Cephalopod size

The largest ammonite was Parapuzosia seppenradensis. A partial fossil specimen found in Germany had a shell diameter of 1.95 metres (6.4 ft), but the living chamber was incomplete, so the estimated shell diameter was probably about 2.55 metres (8.4 ft) when it was alive.

The largest belemnite was Megateuthis gigantea with a guard of 46 centimetres (18 in) in length and an estimated total length 3 metres (9.8 ft) long.

The longest and largest of this group was Cameroceras with a shell length of 9 metres (30 ft).[64]

Both Tusoteuthis and Yezoteuthis are estimated to be similar in size to the modern day giant squid.[65]

See also

References

  1. ^ Carbone, Chris; Teacher, Amber; Rowcliffe, J (2007). "The Costs of Carnivory". PLoS Biology 5 (2): e22. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050022. PMC 1769424. PMID 17227145. http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0050022. Retrieved 2009-12-28. 
  2. ^ Hokkanen, J.E.I. (21 February 1986). "The size of the largest land animal". Journal of Theoretical Biology (Elsevier Ltd) 118 (4): 491–499. doi:10.1016/S0022-5193(86)80167-9. PMID 3713220.  Department of Theoretical Physics, University of Helsinki.
  3. ^ "Sea Monsters - Fact File: Basilosaurus". BBC - Science & Nature. c.2003. http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/seamonsters/factfiles/basilosaurus.shtml. Retrieved 2010-08-22. 
  4. ^ Lambert, Olivier; Giovanni Bianucci, Klaas Post, Christian de Muizon, Rodolfo Salas-Gismondi, Mario Urbina, and Jelle Reumer (1 July 2010). "The giant bite of a new raptorial sperm whale from the Miocene epoch of Peru". Nature (Peru: Nature) 466 (7302): 105–108. doi:10.1038/nature09067. PMID 20596020. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7302/abs/nature09067.html. Retrieved 2 July 2010. 
  5. ^ Perkins, Sid (2010-07-31). "Moby Dick Meets Jaws. Extinct Whale had Teeth Bigger than T. rex's". Science News 178 (3): 17. http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/60690/title/Moby_Dick_meets_Jaws. Retrieved 2010-08-22. 
  6. ^ "The Jaws of the Leviathan". Nature Video. c.2010. http://www.nature.com/nature/videoarchive/jawsofleviathan/index.html. Retrieved 2010-08-22. 
  7. ^ a b Deméré, Thomas A.; Berta, Annalisa; McGowen, Michael R. (2005). "The taxonomic and evolutionary history of fossil and modern balaenopteroid mysticetes". Journal of Mammalian Evolution 12 (1/2): 99–143. doi:10.1007/s10914-005-6944-3. 
  8. ^ Ice Age Marsupial Topped Three Tons, Scientists Say, 2003-09-17. Retrieved 2003-09-17.
  9. ^ Helgen, K.M., Wells, R.T., Kear, B.P., Gerdtz, W.R., and Flannery, T.F. (2006). "Ecological and evolutionary significance of sizes of giant extinct kangaroos". Australian Journal of Zoology 54: 293–303. doi:10.1071/ZO05077. 
  10. ^ Dell'Amore, C. (2011): Biggest Bear Ever Found, National Geographic News, Published February 3, 2011
  11. ^ Paul S Martin (1984). Quaternary Extinctions. The University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1100-4. 
  12. ^ Sorkin, B. 2008: A biomechanical constraint on body mass in terrestrial mammalian predators. Lethaia, Vol. 41, pp. 333–347.
  13. ^ Villier, Boris (2010). "Deinogalerix: a giant hedgehog from the Miocene". Annali dell’Università di Ferrara 6: 93–102. ISSN 1824-2707. 
  14. ^ Ciochon, Russell L. "The Ape that Was - Asian fossils reveal humanity's giant cousin". University of Iowa. http://www.uiowa.edu/%7Ebioanth/giganto.html. Retrieved 2007-12-06. 
  15. ^ Pettifor, Eric (2000) [1995]. "From the Teeth of the Dragon: Gigantopithecus Blacki". Selected Readings in Physical Anthropology. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. pp. 143–149. ISBN 0787271551. http://www.wynja.com/arch/gigantopithecus.html. Retrieved 2008-01-30. 
  16. ^ Rinderknecht, Andrés; R. Ernesto Blanco (2008-01-15). "The largest fossil rodent" (pdf). Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 275 (1637): 923–8. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1645. PMC 2599941. PMID 18198140. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/34j867846u164624/fulltext.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-16. Lay summary. 
  17. ^ Gingerich, Philip D. (1998). "Paleobiological Perspectives on Mesonychia, Archaeoceti, and the Origin of Whales". In Thewissen, J.G.M.. The emergence of whales: evolutionary patterns in the origin of Cetacea. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 423–450. ISBN 978-0306458538 
  18. ^ Sorkin, B. 2008: A biomechanical constraint on body mass in terrestrial mammalian predators. Lethaia, Vol. 41, pp. 333–347
  19. ^ Benton, M.J. (2005). Vertebrate Palaeontology. Oxford, 333.
  20. ^ Lyon, Gabrielle. "Fact Sheet". SuperCroc. Project Exploration. http://www.supercroc.org/about.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-22. 
  21. ^ Lucas, Spencer G.; Robert M. Sullivan, and Justin A. Spielmann (2006). "The Giant Crocodylian Deinosuchus from the Upper Cretaceous of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico". New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin (Mexico) 35. http://www.nmnaturalhistory.org/science/bulletins/35/sci_bulletin35_29.pdf. Retrieved 11 May 2010. 
  22. ^ Bocquentin, Jean; Melo, Janira (2006). "Stupendemys souzai sp. nov. (Pleurodira, Podocnemididae) from the Miocene-Pliocene of the Solimões Formation, Brazil". Sociedade Brasileira de Paleontologia 9 (2): 187–192. doi:10.4072/rbp.2006.2.02. http://www.sbpbrasil.org/revista/edicoes/9_2/RBP9-2-Jean.pdf?ref=Sex%C5%9Ehop.Com 
  23. ^ Head, J. J. (2001). "Systematics and body size of the gigantic, enigmatic crocodyloid Rhamphosuchus crassidens, and the faunal history of Siwalik Group (Miocene) crocodylians". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21 (Supplement to No. 3): 59A. 
  24. ^ Dortangs, Rudi W.; Anne S. Schulp, Eric W. A. Mulder, and John W.M. Jagt (2002). "A large new mosasaur from the Upper Cretaceous of The Netherlands". Netherlands Journal of Geosciences (Netherlands) 81 (1): 1–8. http://www.njgonline.nl/publish/articles/000197/article.pdf. Retrieved 11 May 2010. 
  25. ^ Lingham-Soliar, Theagarten (1995). "Copyright: Anatomy and Functional Morphology of the Largest Marine Reptile Known, Mosasaurus hoffmanni (Mosasauridae, Reptilia) from the Upper Cretaceous, Upper Maastrichtian of the Netherlands". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 347: 155–172. doi:10.1098/rstb.1995.0019 
  26. ^ Everhart, Mike. "Research: Tylosaurus proriger - A new record of a large mosasaur from the Smoky Hill Chalk". http://www.oceansofkansas.com/page10.html. Retrieved 12 May 2010. 
  27. ^ "Fact File: Tylosaurus Proriger from National Geographic". http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/prehistoric/tylosaurus/. Retrieved 12 May 2010. 
  28. ^ a b Head, Jason J.; Jonathan I. Bloch, Alexander K. Hastings, Jason R. Bourque, Edwin A. Cadena, Fabiany A. Herrera, P. David Polly and Carlos A. Jaramillo (5 February 2009). "Giant boid snake from the Palaeocene neotropics reveals hotter past equatorial temperatures". Nature (Colombia: Macmillan Publishers Limited) 457 (7230): 715–717. doi:10.1038/nature07671. PMID 19194448. http://mkatti-classes.pbworks.com/f/Head_etal_GiantBoidSnake_Nature2009.pdf. Retrieved 12 May 2010. 
  29. ^ Roach, John (February 4, 2009). "Biggest Snake Discovered; Was Longer Than a Bus". National Geographic News (USA). http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/02/090204-biggest-snake-fossil.html. 
  30. ^ Rage, Jean-Claude; Sunil Bajpai, Johannes G. M. Thewissen, and Brahma N. Tiwari (2003). "Early Eocene snakes from Kutch, Western India, with a review of the Palaeophiidae". Geodiversitas (India: Editions scientifiques du Muséum, Paris, FRANCE) 25 (4): 695–716. ISSN 1280-9659. http://www.mnhn.fr/publication/geodiv/g03n4a6.pdf. Retrieved 12 May 2010. 
  31. ^ "Megalania, giant ripper lizard". http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/3046.shtml. Retrieved 7 February 2010. 
  32. ^ "Lost Tapes: Megalania". http://animal.discovery.com/prehistoric/megalania/anatomy.html. Retrieved 7 February 2010. 
  33. ^ Predator X (TV). Norway: History Channel. 2008. http://www.history.com/content/predatorx. 
  34. ^ a b Buchy, M.-C.; Frey, E.; Stinnesbeck, W.; López-Oliva, J.G. (2003). "First occurrence of a gigantic pliosaurid plesiosaur in the late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) of Mexico". Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 174 (3): 271–278. doi:10.2113/174.3.271. 
  35. ^ "Monster von Arramberri". http://www.smnk.de/SMNK/02-Forsch-I/02-03-Geo-Pal/2-3-2-1/2-3-2-1-Inhalt.html. Retrieved 6 February 2010. 
  36. ^ "The Cumnor monster mandible". http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2007/12/cumnor_monster_mandible.php. Retrieved 31 October 2011. 
  37. ^ "Triassic Giant". http://www.tyrrellmuseum.com/exhibits/triassic_giant.htm. Retrieved 7 February 2010. 
  38. ^ Lutz, Peter L.; John A. Musick (1996). The Biology of Sea Turtles. CRC Press. p. 432pp.. ISBN 0849384222. http://books.google.com/?id=fhm2yGTBiN8C&dq=protostegidae. 
  39. ^ Buffetaut, E.; Grigorescu, D.; Csiki, Z. (2002). "A new giant pterosaur with a robust skull from the latest Cretaceous of Romania". Naturwissenschaften 89 (4): 180–184. doi:10.1007/s00114-002-0307-1. PMID 12061403. http://www.springerlink.com/content/w55xf7hvvmwp6t5c/. 
  40. ^ a b c Carpenter, K. (2006). "Biggest of the big: a critical re-evaluation of the mega-sauropod Amphicoelias fragillimus." In Foster, J.R. and Lucas, S.G., eds., 2006, Paleontology and Geology of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 36: 131–138.
  41. ^ a b Zhao, X.; Li, D.; Han, G.; Hao, H.; Liu, F.; Li, L.; and Fang, X. (2007). "Zhuchengosaurus maximus from Shandong Province". Acta Geoscientia Sinica 28 (2): 111–122. doi:10.1007/s10114-005-0808-x. 
  42. ^ a b Morris, William J. (1981). "A new species of hadrosaurian dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of Baja California: ?Lambeosaurus laticaudus". Journal of Paleontology 55 (2): 453–462. 
  43. ^ dal Sasso, C.; Maganuco, S.; Buffetaut, E.; and Mendez, M.A. (2005). "New information on the skull of the enigmatic theropod Spinosaurus, with remarks on its sizes and affinities". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 25 (4): 888–896. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0888:NIOTSO]2.0.CO;2. http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1671%2F0272-4634%282005%29025%5B0888%3ANIOTSO%5D2.0.CO%3B2. 
  44. ^ Calvo, Jorge O.; Coria, Rodolfo (1998). "New specimen of Giganotosaurus Carolinii". GAIA: 117–122. http://www.mnhn.ul.pt/geologia/gaia/7.pdf 
  45. ^ Henderson DM (January 1, 1999). "Estimating the masses and centers of mass of extinct animals by 3-D mathematical slicing". Paleobiology 25 (1): 88–106. http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/25/1/88. 
  46. ^ Vickaryous, M.K., Maryanska, T., & Weishampel, D.B. 2004. Ankylosauria. In: Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P., & Osmólska, H. (Eds.). The Dinosauria (2nd edition). Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 363-392.
  47. ^ Holtz, Thomas R. Jr. (2008). Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages. New York: Random House. pp. 52, updated appendix. ISBN 0375824197. 
  48. ^ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}". http://australianmuseum.com/Dromornis-stirtoni. 
  49. ^ BBC - Earth News - Giant fossil bird found on 'hobbit' island of Flores
  50. ^ Meijer HJM & R A Due (2010). "A new species of giant marabou stork (Aves: Ciconiiformes) from the Pleistocene of Liang Bua, Flores (Indonesia)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 160: 707–724. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2010.00616.x. 
  51. ^ "Systematic revision of the Phorusrhacidae (Aves: Ralliformes)". http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0031-10492003000400001. 
  52. ^ Arredondo, Oscar (1976) translated Olson, Storrs L. The Great Predatory Birds of the Pleistocene of Cuba pp. 169-187 in "Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology number 27; Collected Papers in Avian Paleontology Honoring the 90th Birthday of Alexander Wetmore"
  53. ^ Palmer, D., ed (1999). The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals. London: Marshall Editions. p. 53. ISBN 1-84028-152-9. 
  54. ^ Liston, Jeff. "Big Dead Fish, or just Big Dead-in-the-Water Ideas?". http://www.big-dead-fish.com/aftermath.htm. Retrieved 6 February 2010. 
  55. ^ deGruy, Michael (2006). Perfect Shark (TV-Series). BBC. 
  56. ^ Klimley, Peter; Ainley, David (1996). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press. ISBN 0124150314. 
  57. ^ Pimiento, Catalina; Dana J. Ehret, Bruce J. MacFadden, and Gordon Hubbell (May 10, 2010). Stepanova, Anna. ed. "Ancient Nursery Area for the Extinct Giant Shark Megalodon from the Miocene of Panama". PLoS One (Panama: PLoS.org) 5 (5): e10552. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010552. PMC 2866656. PMID 20479893. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2866656. 
  58. ^ Wroe, S.; Huber, D. R. ; Lowry, M. ; McHenry, C. ; Moreno, K. ; Clausen, P. ; Ferrara, T. L. ; Cunningham, E. ; Dean, M. N. ; Summers, A. P. (2008). "Three-dimensional computer analysis of white shark jaw mechanics: how hard can a great white bite?". Journal of Zoology 276 (4): 336–342. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00494.x. 
  59. ^ Gutiérrez-Marco, Juan C.; Sá, Artur A.; Garcia-Bellido, Diego C.; Rabano, Isabel; Valério, Manuel (2009). "Giant Trilobites and Trilobite Clusters from the Ordovician of Portugal". Geology 37: 443−446. doi:10.1130/G25513A.1. 
  60. ^ Schaal, Stephan (27 Jan 2006). Messel. doi:10.1038/npg.els.0004143. 
  61. ^ "Dragonfly: the largest complete insect wing ever found", Harvard Magazine November–December 2007:112.
  62. ^ Svitil, Kathy A. (2003-12-08). "The First Spinners". Discover. http://discovermagazine.com/2003/dec/first-spinners1218. Retrieved 2010-09-09. 
  63. ^ Easterday, Cary R. (2003). "Evidence for silk-spinning in trigonotarbid arachnids (Chelicerata: Tetrapulmonata) and other discoveries from Cemetery Hill (Carboniferous: Desmoisnian-Missourian), Columbiana County, Eastern Ohio.". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, ,. 35. Seattle, Washington: Geological Society of America. pp. 538. http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_66896.htm 
  64. ^ Teichert C and B Kummel (1960). "Size of Endocerid Cephalopods". Breviora Mus. Comp. Zool. 128: 1–7. 
  65. ^ http://www.tonmo.com/science/fossils/cretaceousGS.php